Redshift Academy

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Astronomy

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Astronomical Distance Units .

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Celestial Coordinates .

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Celestial Navigation .

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Location of North and South Celestial Poles .

Chemistry

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Avogadro's Number .

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Balancing Chemical Equations

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The Periodic Table .

Classical Mechanics

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Blackbody Radiation .

Classical Physics

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Archimedes Principle

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Bernoulli Principle

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Center of Mass Frame

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Comparison Between Gravitation and Electrostatics

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Compton Effect .

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Coriolis Effect

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Cyclotron Resonance

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Double Slit Experiment

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Elastic and Inelastic Collisions .

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Electric Fields

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Gauss's Law of Universal Gravity .

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Gravity - Force and Acceleration

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Ideal and Non-Ideal Gas Laws (van der Waal)

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Kinetic Theory of Gases .

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Kirchoff's Laws

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Maxwell's Equations .

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Moments and Torque

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One Dimensional Wave Equation .

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Pascal's Principle

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Phase and Group Velocity

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Poiseuille's Law

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Refractive Index

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Rotational Dynamics

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Simple Harmonic Motion

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Specific Heat, Latent Heat and Calorimetry

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The Laws of Thermodynamics

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The Zeeman Effect .

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Young's Modulus

Climate Change

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Keeling Curve .

Cosmology

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Cosmic Background Radiation and Decoupling .

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Friedmann-Robertson-Walker Equations .

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Inflation Theory

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Introduction to Black Holes .

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Olbers' Paradox .

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Stephen Hawking's Last Paper .

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Stephen Hawking's PhD Thesis .

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The Big Bang Model

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Vacuum Energy .

Finance and Accounting

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Brownian Model of Financial Markets .

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Capital Structure

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Dividend Discount Formula

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Lecture Notes on International Financial Management

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Periodically and Continuously Compounded Interest

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Repurchase versus Dividend Analysis

Game Theory

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General Relativity

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Basis One-forms .

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Catalog of Spacetimes .

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Curvature and Parallel Transport

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Einstein's Field Equations

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Gravitational Waves

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Hyperbolic Motion and Rindler Coordinates .

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Quantum Gravity

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Ricci Decomposition .

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Stress-Energy-Momentum Tensor .

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The Area Metric

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The Dirac Equation in Curved Spacetime .

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The Equivalence Principal

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The Essential Mathematics of General Relativity

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The Induced Metric

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The Light Cone .

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The Metric Tensor .

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The Principle of Least Action in Relativity .

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Vierbein (Frame) Fields

Group Theory

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Basic Group Theory .

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Basic Representation Theory .

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Building Groups From Other Groups .

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Sets, Groups, Modules, Rings and Vector Spaces

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Symmetric Groups .

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The Integers Modulo n Under + and x .

Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Mechanics

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Classical Field Theory .

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Euler-Lagrange Equation .

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Ex: Newtonian, Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Mechanics .

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Hamiltonian Formulation .

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Liouville's Theorem

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Symmetry and Conservation Laws - Noether's Theorem .

Macroeconomics

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Lecture Notes on International Economics

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Lecture Notes on Macroeconomics

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Macroeconomic Policy

Mathematics

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Amplitude, Period and Phase

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Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences and Series .

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Augmented Matrices and Cramer's Rule

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Binomial Theorem (Pascal's Triangle)

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Completing the Square

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Complex Numbers

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Composite Functions

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Conformal Transformations .

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Conjugate Pair Theorem

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Contravariant and Covariant Components of a Vector

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Derivatives of Inverse Functions

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Double Angle Formulas

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Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues

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Euler Formula for Polyhedrons

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Factoring of a³ +/- b³

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Fourier Series and Transforms .

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Gauss's Divergence Theorem

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Grassmann and Clifford Algebras .

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Heron's Formula

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Index Notation (Tensors and Matrices) .

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Integration By Parts

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Introduction to Conformal Field Theory .

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Inverse of a Function

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Law of Sines and Cosines

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Line Integrals, ∮

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Logarithms and Logarithmic Equations

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Matrices and Determinants

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Matrix Exponential

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Mean Value and Rolle's Theorem

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Modulus Equations

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Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates .

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Parabolas, Ellipses and Hyperbolas

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Piecewise Functions

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Polar Coordinates

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Polynomial Division

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Quaternions 1 .

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Quaternions 2 .

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Regular Polygons

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Similar Matrices and Diagonalization .

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Spherical Trigonometry

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Stirling's Approximation

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Sum and Differences of Squares and Cubes

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Tangent and Normal Line

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series .

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The Essential Mathematics of Lie Groups

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The Limit Definition of the Exponential Function

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Tic-Tac-Toe Factoring

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Trapezoidal Rule

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Volume Integrals

Microeconomics

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Marginal Revenue and Cost

Nuclear Physics

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Radioactive Decay

Particle Physics

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Feynman Diagrams and Loops

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Field Dimensions

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Helicity, Chirality and Weyl Spinors .

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Klein-Gordon and Dirac Equations .

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Regularization and Renormalization

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Scattering - Mandelstam Variables

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Spin 1 Eigenvectors .

Probability and Statistics

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Box and Whisker Plots

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Buffon's Needle .

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Categorical Data - Crosstabs

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Chebyshev's Theorem

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Chi Squared Goodness of Fit

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Conditional Probability

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Confidence Intervals

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Factor Analysis

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Hypothesis Testing

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Linear Regression

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Monte Carlo Methods

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Non Parametric Tests

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Pearson Correlation

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Permutations and Combinations

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Pooled Variance and Standard Error

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Probability Distributions

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Probability Rules

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Sample Size Determination

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Sampling Distributions

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Set Theory - Venn Diagrams

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Stacked and Unstacked Data

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Stem Plots, Histograms and Ogives

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Survey Data - Likert Item and Scale

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Programming and Computer Science

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How this site works ...

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More Programming Topics

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MVC Architecture

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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Standard - TCP/IP Protocol

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Public Key Encryption

Quantum Computing

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Density Operators and Mixed States .

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Entangled States .

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Quantum Field Theory

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Creation and Annihilation Operators

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Field Operators for Bosons and Fermions

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Lagrangians in Quantum Field Theory

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Path Integral Formulation

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Relativistic Quantum Field Theory

Quantum Mechanics

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Clebsch-Gordan Coefficients .

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Electron Orbital Angular Momentum and Spin

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Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

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Ladder Operators .

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Multi Electron Wavefunctions .

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Pauli Spin Matrices

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Photoelectric Effect .

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Position and Momentum States .

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Probability Current

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Schrodinger Equation for Hydrogen Atom .

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Schrodinger Wave Equation

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Spin 1/2 Eigenvectors

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The Differential Operator

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The Essential Mathematics of Quantum Mechanics

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The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator .

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The Schrodinger, Heisenberg and Dirac Pictures

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The WKB Approximation

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Time Dependent Perturbation Theory

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Time Evolution and Symmetry Operations

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Time Independent Perturbation Theory

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Semiconductor Reliability

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The Weibull Distribution

Solid State Electronics

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Band Theory of Solids .

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Fermi-Dirac Statistics .

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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors .

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The P-N Junction

Special Relativity

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Electromagnetic (Faraday) Tensor .

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Energy and Momentum in Special Relativity, E = mc² .

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Invariance of the Velocity of Light .

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Lorentz Invariance .

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Lorentz Transform .

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Lorentz Transformation of the EM Field .

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Newton versus Einstein

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Spinors - Part 1 .

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Spinors - Part 2 .

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The Continuity Equation .

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The Lorentz Group .

Statistical Mechanics

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Entropy and the Partition Function

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The Harmonic Oscillator

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String Theory

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Bosonic Strings

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Extra Dimensions

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Introduction to String Theory

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Kaluza-Klein Compactification of Closed Strings

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Strings in Curved Spacetime

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Toroidal Compactification

Superconductivity

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Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer Theory

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Introduction to Superconductivity .

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Superconductivity (Lectures 1 - 10)

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Superconductivity (Lectures 11 - 20)

Supersymmetry (SUSY) and Grand Unified Theory (GUT)

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Chiral Superfields

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Generators of a Supergroup

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Grassmann Numbers

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Introduction to Supersymmetry

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The Gauge Hierarchy Problem

The Standard Model

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Electroweak Unification (Glashow-Weinberg-Salam)

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Gauge Theories (Yang-Mills)

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Gravitational Force and the Planck Scale

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Introduction to the Standard Model

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Isospin, Hypercharge, Weak Isospin and Weak Hypercharge

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Quantum Flavordynamics and Quantum Chromodynamics

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Special Unitary Groups and the Standard Model - Part 1 .

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Special Unitary Groups and the Standard Model - Part 2

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Special Unitary Groups and the Standard Model - Part 3 .

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Standard Model Lagrangian

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The Higgs Mechanism

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The Nature of the Weak Interaction

Topology

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Units, Constants and Useful Formulas

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Last modified: January 17, 2022 ✓


Brownian Motion
---------------

Brownian motion (named after the Scottish 
botanist Robert Brown) is the seemingly 
random movement of particles suspended in 
a fluid (i.e. a liquid such as water or air) 
or the mathematical model used to describe 
such random movements, often called a particle 
theory.  The following animation demonstrates 
such a motion.  The big particle can be viewed 
as a dust particle while the smaller particles 
can be considered as the molecules of a gas. 

 

It has been shown that the logarithms of common 
stock prices have a probability distribution 
that is similar to the probability distribution 
for a particle in Brownian motion.  The model 
for stock price evolution is given by:

ln(S_t/S_t-1) = αΔt + W_tσ

Where,
ln is the natural logarithm.

S_t is the stock price in the current period.

S_t-1 is the stock in the previous period.

α = μ - 0.5σ² is the "adjusted drift" for the 
   stock.

Δt is the change in time.

μ is the drift of the stock. 

σ is the volatility of the stock.

W_t = ε√t ... the Brownian motion. 

ε is a random number drawn from the Inverse 
Standard Normal cumulative distribution, N(0,1).

The first term is the "drift" component and 
the second term is the "shock or uncertainty" 
component.